the water of the spring

"water;

Wasser"

* * *

f water

acqua corrente running water

acqua minerale mineral water

acqua potabile drinking water

acqua di rubinetto tap water

acqua ossigenata hydrogen peroxide

una teoria che fa acqua a theory that doesn't hold water

acqua in bocca! keep it under your hat!

ha l'acqua alla gola ( non ha tempo) he's pushed for time

acque pl waters

acque pl territoriali territorial waters

in cattive acque in deep water

* * *

acqua s.f.

1 water: acqua di mare, seawater; acqua dolce, salata, fresh, salt water; acqua dura, leggera, hard, soft water; acqua ferma, stagnant water; acqua piovana, rainwater; acqua minerale, mineral water; acqua distillata, distilled water; acqua salmastra, brackish water; acqua sorgiva, spring water; acqua termale, hot spring; acqua lustrale, santa, holy water // filo d'acqua, trickle of water // giochi d'acqua, fountains // specchio d'acqua, expanse of water // vortice d'acqua, eddy // (geogr.): acqua alta, tidal wave; acqua di riflusso, stagnante, backwater; acqua morta, slack; acque poco profonde, soundings; corso d'acqua, stream (o watercourse) // (meteor.) acque meteoriche, meteoric water // (geol.): acqua sotterranea, groundwater; ritorno di acqua sotterranea, backflooding; acque vadose, vadose water // (chim.): acqua ossigenata, hydrogen peroxide; acqua regia, aqua regia // (fis.) acqua pesante, heavy water // acqua di rose, rosewater; all'acqua di rose, (fig.) superficial, shallow // acqua cheta, (fig.) sly person; (fam.) slyboots: l'acqua cheta rovina i ponti, still waters run deep // acqua in bocca!, keep it under your hat! // diamante della più bell'acqua, diamond of the first water; della più bell'acqua, (fig.) first class (o of the highest order) // un pesce fuor d'acqua, a fish out of water // tempesta in un bicchier d'acqua, a storm in a teacup // affogare in un bicchier d'acqua, to drown in an inch of water // assomigliarsi come due gocce d'acqua, to be as like as two peas (in a pod) // avere l'acqua alla gola, to be in a tight corner // fare acqua, to leak; un ragionamento che fa acqua da tutte le parti, (fig.) an unsound argument; quell'azienda fa acqua, that company isn't doing well // fare un buco nell'acqua, to beat the air (o to get nowhere o to come up against a stone wall) // sott' acqua, underwater; lavorare sott' acqua, (fig.) to act in an underhand way // lasciar correre l'acqua per la sua china, to let matters take their course (o to refrain from interfering) // gettare acqua sul fuoco, to dampen s.o.'s enthusiasm (o to pour oil on troubled waters) // navigare in cattive acque, to be in deep waters // pestare l'acqua nel mortaio, to flog a dead horse // tirar l'acqua al proprio mulino, to bring grist to one's mill // è acqua passata, it's all water under the bridge; ne è passata di acqua sotto i ponti!, that's a long time ago!; acqua passata non macina più, (prov.) let bygones be bygones

2 ( pioggia) rain: acqua a catinelle, heavy rain; piovere acqua a catinelle, to rain cats and dogs // rovescio d'acqua, shower (o downpour) // scroscio d'acqua, cloud burst (o downpour) // prendere un sacco d'acqua, to get soaked (o drenched)

3 pl. (med.) ( liquido amniotico) the waters.

* * *

1. ['akkwa]

1) (gen) water, (pioggia) rain

2)

- acqua di calce

- acqua di colonia

- acqua corrente

- acqua distillata

- acqua dolce

- acqua gassata

- acqua di mare

- acqua minerale

- acqua ossigenata

- acqua pesante

- acqua piovana

- acqua potabile

- acqua ragia

- acqua di rose

- acqua del rubinetto

- acqua salata

- acqua santa

- acqua sorgiva

- acqua tonica

- acque superficiali

- acque territoriali

* * *

sostantivo femminile

1) water

2) (pioggia) rain

3) colloq. (urina)

4) miner. (trasparenza) water

5) (nei giochi infantili)

sostantivo femminile plurale acque

1) fisiol. (liquido amniotico) waters

2) (alle terme)

•

••

* * *

acqua

/'akkwa/

I sostantivo f.

 1 water; un bicchiere d'acqua a glass of water; l'acqua del lago è inquinata the water in the lake is polluted; sott'acqua underwater

 2 (pioggia) rain; veniva giù tanta acqua colloq. it was pouring; prendere l'acqua to get wet, to get caught in the rain; sotto l'acqua [stare, camminare] in the rain

 3 colloq. (urina) fare due gocce d'acqua to pass water

 4 miner. (trasparenza) water; della più bell'acqua of the first water (anche fig.)

 5 (nei giochi infantili) acqua! you're getting colder!

II acque f.pl.

 1 fisiol. (liquido amniotico) waters

 2 (alle terme) passare, bere le -e to take, to drink the waters

IDIOMS

è acqua passata it's all water under the bridge; è passata molta acqua sotto i ponti a lot of water has flowed under the bridge; ogni acqua va alla china, l'acqua va al mare prov. = things will run their course; essere un'acqua cheta = to be a sly person and do things behind people's back; fare acqua [ imbarcazione] to make water, to leak; fig. [ragionamento, teoria] not to hold water; navigare o essere in cattive -e to be in deep water; avere l'acqua alla gola to be in a tight corner, to be hard-pressed; buttare via il bambino con l'acqua sporca to throw the baby out with the bathwater; tirare l'acqua (del WC) to flush the toilet; portare o tirare acqua al proprio mulino to have an axe to grind; gettare acqua sul fuoco to pour oil on troubled waters; calmare le -e to smooth ruffled feathers, to pour oil on troubled waters; fare calmare le -e to allow the dust to settle; ha scoperto l'acqua calda! he reinvented the wheel! acqua in bocca! mum's the word! keep it under your hat! l'acqua cheta rompe i ponti prov. still waters run deep; portare acqua al mare to carry coals to Newcastle; acqua e sapone [ viso] = without make-up; [ ragazza] = fresh and natural; all'acqua di rose [soluzione, persona] milk-and-water, wishy-washy

\

COMPOUNDS

acqua alta (alta marea) high tide o water; acqua bassa (bassa marea) low tide o water; acqua benedetta holy water; acqua di Colonia (eau de) cologne; acqua corrente running water, water from the mains; acqua distillata distilled water; acqua dolce fresh water; acqua dura chim. hard water; acqua di fonte spring water; acqua gassata sparkling o carbonated water; acqua di mare seawater; acqua minerale mineral water; acqua naturale still water; acqua non potabile undrinkable water; acqua ossigenata hydrogen peroxide; acqua pesante heavy water; acqua piovana rainwater; acqua potabile drinkable o drinking water; acqua ragia →  acquaragia; acqua di rose rose-water; acqua di o del rubinetto tap water; acqua salata (di mare) salt water; (in cucina) salted water; acqua santa →  acquasanta; acqua di Seltz Seltzer water; acqua tonica tonic water; - e bianche (di rifiuto) = waste water free of excrement; - e continentali continental waters; - e internazionali international waters; - e nere sewage, black water; -e di rifiuto, scarico, di scolo waste water, sewage sludge; - e territoriali territorial o home waters; - e termali thermal waters, spa water.

1. water

вода за пиене drinking water

борова вода boric solution/water

газирана вода soda water

дъждовна вода rain-water

изворна вода spring water

минерална вода mineral water

морска вода sea-water

сладка вода fresh/sweet water

розова/гюлова вода rose water

текуща вода running water

тиха вода still water

светена вода holy water

вземам вода (за локомотив, параход и пр.) water; take in fresh water

напълнен с вода (за плавателен съд) waterlogged

той остана под водата колкото можа (да издържи) he kept underwater as long as he could

плувам под вода swim under water

започвам да пропускам вода (за лодка и пр.) spring a leak

2. (водно пространство) waters; expanse of water

вода и суша land and water, flood and field

върви ми като по вода it is plain sailing; be in smooth water; get on like a house on fire, everything goes like one o'clock

вода газя, жаден ходя lack amidst plenty

като по вода swimmingly; like one o'clock

зная по вода have at o.'s finger-tips

знам си урока като по вода know o.'s lesson off pat; have o.'s lesson perfect

пия вода от извора have s.th. from a sure source, разг. have it straight from the horse's mouth

много вода изтече от тогава much water has flowed/run under the bridge since then

в мътна вода риба ловя fish in troubled waters

наливам вода в чужда воденица bring grist to s.o. else's mill, play into s. о/д hands

(пази се от) тиха вода still waters run deep

подливам някому вода, мътя някому вода та give s.o. the slip; put a spoke in s.o.'s wheel

поливам с вряла/студена вода cast a chill over

чувствувам се като риба във вода feel quite at ease/at home; be (as happy) as a clam (at high tide); be in o.'s element

* * *

вода̀,

ж., само ед. и водѝ само мн.

1. water; шег. Adam’s ale; борова \вода boric solution/water; вземам \вода (за локомотив, параход и пр.) water; take in fresh water; \вода за пиене drinking water, tap water; газирана \вода soda water; започвам да пропускам \вода (за лодка и пр.) spring a leak; морска \вода sea-water; налог/такса за \вода water rate; напълнен с \вода (за плавателен съд) water-logged; розова/гюлова \вода rose water; светена \вода holy water; сладка \вода fresh/sweet water; течаща \вода running water; тиха \вода still water;

2. ( водно пространство) waters; expanse of water; \вода и суша land and water, flood and field; • \вода газя, жаден ходя lack amidst plenty; върви ми като по \вода it is plain sailing; be in smooth water; get on like a house on fire, everything goes like one o’clock; go like a dream; зная по \вода have at o.’s finger-tips; знам си урока като по \вода know o.’s lesson off pat; have o.’s lesson perfect; като по \вода swimmingly; like one o’clock; кръвта \вода не става blood is thicker than water; много \вода изтече от тогава much water flowed/ran under the bridge since then; в мътна \вода риба ловя fish in troubled waters; наливам \вода в чужда воденица bring grist to s.o. else’s mill, play s.o.’s hands; пази се от тиха \вода still waters run deep; пия \вода от извора have s.th. from sure source, разг. have it straight from the horse’s mouth; подливам някому \вода, мътя някому \водата give s.o. the slip; put a spoke in s.o.’s wheel, put the skids under s.o.; поливам с вряла/студена \вода cast a chill over; тихите води са най-дълбоки still waters run deep; чувствам се като риба във \вода feel quite at ease/at home; be (as happy) as a clam (at high tide); be in o.’s element/on o.’s own ground.

* * *

mineral water (минерална); wash (тоалетна); water: drinking вода - вода за пиене

* * *

1 to happen, to turn up, to come up, to occur.

Algo surgió ayer Something happened yesterday.

2 to rise, to stand out, to advance, to excel.

Surgimos después de la quiebra We rose after the bankruptcy.

3 to appear, to emerge, to arise, to bob up.

Surgió un animal en la oscuridad An animal appeared in the darkness.

4 to happen unexpectedly to, to happen to.

Nos surgió algo bueno ayer Something good happened to us yesterday.

5 to spurt, to spout, to spring up, to issue forth.

El agua surge del manantial The water spurts from the spring.

* * *

Conjugation model [ DIRIGIR], like link=dirigir dirigir

► verbo intransitivo

1 (agua) to spring forth, spurt up

2 figurado (aparecer - gen) to appear, emerge; (- dificultades) to crop up, arise, come up

3 MARÍTIMO to anchor

* * *

* * *

1) (=aparecer) [gen] to arise, emerge, appear; [líquido] to spout, spout out, spurt; [barco] [en la niebla] to loom up; [persona] to appear unexpectedly

2) [dificultad] to arise, come up, crop up

3) (Náut) to anchor

* * *

verbo intransitivo

a) manantial to rise

b) (aparecer, salir) problema/dificultad to arise, come up, emerge; interés/sentimiento to develop, emerge; idea to emerge, come up; tema to come up, crop up; movimiento/partido to come into being, arise

* * *

= arise, become + available, come into + being, crop up, emerge, rise, pop up, come into + existence, burgeon, surface, grow up, dawn, spring, come through, come up, come with, break out, burst forth, source, pop, set in.

Ex. The place of publication may also warn of biases in approach or differences in terminology that arise in the text.

Ex. Mini and micro computers will become cheaper and information retrieval software will become available in more financially attractive, user friendly and tried and tested packages.

Ex. I think it would be useful to take just a few minutes to talk about how our institutions come into being.

Ex. Although same problems with software applications, hardware and user training programmes had cropped up periodically, on balance, users are reasonably pleased with their acquisitions.

Ex. In 1961 an International Conference on Cataloguing Principles was held in Paris, and a statement of principles emerged, which became known as the Paris Principles.

Ex. The public library has two choices: to follow the dodo or to rise again like the phoenix.

Ex. It can pop up in one form one week and in another form another week.

Ex. Some university libraries have been built up over the centuries; others have come into existence over the last 40 years.

Ex. The other principal omission from UNESCO's 1950 listing was report literature -- a field of published record which has burgeoned in the last thirty years = La otra omisión principal de la lista de 1950 de la UNESCO fueron los informes, un área que se ha desarrollado en los últimos treinta años.

Ex. Power struggles are surfacing at major academic institutions across the USA.

Ex. In the 1920s and 30s factory libraries grew up in all types of industries, particularly textile industries, but their size and quality varied.

Ex. However, because of the long duration of feudal society, modern civilization, including modern libraries, dawned in China later than in the industrialized Western countries.

Ex. My point is that all literature, every example we can think of, depends for its existence on the tradition out of which it springs -- even the most avant of the avant-garde.

Ex. More sophisticated accreditation systems are coming through, but these are currently relatively little used in these areas, and are more common in ecommerce applications.

Ex. She outlined the tasks she had been assigned and mentioned that if any emergencies came up she was the person to bring them to.

Ex. The problem comes with ideographic languages.

Ex. Loud, unscripted quarrels between unshaven peasants break out in odd corners of the auditorium and add to the liveliness.

Ex. It seems the passions of the people were only sleeping and burst forth with a terrible fury.

Ex. What this has meant is that in the 20th century, ideas are being sourced from all over the globe; and at the speed oflight, so to speak.

Ex. The azaleas are popping, the redbuds are in their finest attire, and the dogwoods are lacy jewels at the edge of the wood.

Ex. Open or compound fractures were usually fatal prior to the advent of antiseptics in the 1860s because infection would set in.

----

* cuando le surja la necesidad = at + Posesivo + time of need.

* cuestión + surgir = issue + surface.

* dificultad + surgir = difficulty + arise.

* emergencia + surgir = emergency + arise.

* idea + surgir = idea + come up.

* oportunidad + surgir = opportunity + arise.

* peligro + surgir = danger + arise.

* prejuicio + surgir = prejudice + arise.

* problema + surgir = problem + arise, problem + surface, problem + come with.

* según surja la ocasión = as the occasion arises.

* situación + surgir = situation + arise.

* surgiendo de nuevas = on the rebound.

* surgir amenazadoramente = rear + its head.

* surgir de = arise out of, be rooted in, develop out of, emanate from, grow out of, stem from, spin off, come out of, spring off from, be born of.

* surgir de nuevo = re-arise.

* surgir de un modo confuso = grow + like Topsy.

* surgir la circunstancia = circumstance + arise.

* surgir malentendidos = arise + misunderstandings.

* surgir sospechas = arise + suspicion.

* surgir una complicación = arise + complication.

* surgir una cuestión = issue + arise, arise + question.

* surgir una dificultad = arise + difficulty.

* surgir una necesidad = need + arise.

* surgir una ocasión = occasion + arise.

* surgir un defecto = arise + fault.

* surgir un problema de credibilidad = credibility gap + arise.

* * *

verbo intransitivo

a) manantial to rise

b) (aparecer, salir) problema/dificultad to arise, come up, emerge; interés/sentimiento to develop, emerge; idea to emerge, come up; tema to come up, crop up; movimiento/partido to come into being, arise

* * *

* * *

surgir [I7 ]

1 «manantial» to rise

un chorro surgía de entre las rocas water gushed from o spouted out from between the rocks

2 (aparecer, salir) «problema/dificultad» to arise, come up, emerge; «interés/sentimiento» to develop, emerge; «idea» to emerge, come up

han surgido impedimentos de última hora some last-minute problems have come up o arisen

¿y cómo surgió ese tema? and how did that subject come up o crop up?

el amor que surgió entre ellos the love that sprang up between them

una silueta surgió de entre las sombras a shape rose up from o loomed up out of the shadows

de la familia han surgido muchos músicos the family has produced many musicians

han surgido muchas empresas de este tipo a lot of companies of this kind have sprung up o emerged

el movimiento surgió como respuesta a esta injusticia the movement came into being as a response to o arose in response to this injustice

3 (desprenderse, deducirse) surgir DE algo:

del informe surge que … the report shows that …

¿qué surge de todo esto? what can be deduced from all this?

* * *

* * *

surgir vi

1. [brotar] to emerge, to spring;

un manantial surgía entre las rocas a spring emerged among the rocks, water sprang from among the rocks

2. [aparecer] to appear;

surgió de detrás de las cortinas he emerged from behind the curtains;

el rascacielos surgía entre los edificios del centro the skyscraper rose o towered above the buildings Br in the city centre o US downtown

3. [producirse] to arise;

se lo preguntaré si surge la ocasión I'll ask her if the opportunity arises;

la idea surgió cuando… the idea occurred to him/her/ etc when…;

nos surgieron varios problemas we ran into a number of problems;

me han surgido varias dudas I have a number of queries;

nos ha surgido una dificultad de última hora a last-minute difficulty has arisen o come up;

están surgiendo nuevos destinos turísticos new tourist destinations are emerging o appearing;

un banco surgido como resultado de la fusión de otros dos a bank that came into being o emerged as a result of the merger of two other banks;

un movimiento surgido tras la guerra a movement which emerged after the war

* * *

1 fig

emerge; de problema tb come up

2 de agua spout

* * *

surgir {35} vi

: to rise, to arise, to emerge

* * *

surgir vb to come up [pt. came; pp. come] / to arise [pt. arose; pp. arisen]

1 spring.

en primavera in (the) spring

2 springtime.

3 primrose.

4 Primavera.

* * *

► nombre femenino

1 spring

2 literal (año) year

■ tiene sólo veinte primaveras she's is just twenty

■ una chica de quince primaveras a girl of fifteen summers

3 BOTÁNICA primrose

* * *

* * *

1. SF

1) (=estación) spring

- la primavera la sangre altera

2) liter (=esplendor)

3) pl primaveras liter (=años) summers liter

4) (Orn) blue tit

5) (Bot) primrose

* * *

1) ( estación) spring

2) (Bot) primrose

* * *

= spring, springtime.

Ex. We are thus concerned with a virtually limitless number of concepts - building, book, reading, colour, sea, water, spring, England, 1066 AD - any concepts you like.

Ex. The article ' Springtime in Washington' reviews the proceedings of the 71st Annual Conference of the Special Libraries Association, Washington, D.C., 7-12 June 80.

----

* azafrán de primavera = crocus, saffron crocus.

* de la primavera = vernal.

* en primavera = in springtime.

* equinoccio de primavera = spring equinox, vernal equinox.

* mediados de la primavera = mid-spring.

* que florece en primavera = spring-flowering.

* trimestre de la primavera = spring semester.

* vacaciones de primavera = spring break.

* * *

1) ( estación) spring

2) (Bot) primrose

* * *

* * *

A (estación) spring

en primavera in spring o springtime

estaba en la primavera de la vida she was in the springtime of her life

acababa de cumplir quince primaveras she was just 15, she had just celebrated 15 summers ( liter)

la primavera la sangre altera spring is in the air, the sap rises in the spring

B ( Bot) primrose

* * *

◊ en primavera in spring, in springtime

* * *

primavera nf

1. [estación] spring;

en primavera in (the) spring;

cuando llegue la primavera when (the) spring comes;

la última primavera last spring;

la primavera la sangre altera spring is in the air

2. [juventud] springtime

3. [año]

4. [planta] primrose

* * *

1 spring

2 BOT primrose

* * *

primavera nf

1) : spring (season)

2) prímula: primrose

* * *

primavera n (estación) spring

ὕδωρ, ατος, τό (Hom.+; loanw. in rabb.) water

① in a material sense, as an element Dg 8:2 (Ar. 5, 1f; Ath. 18, 3; s. στοιχεῖον 1). Of the ocean 1 Cl 33:3; pl. Hv 1, 3, 4 (cp. Ps 135:6, w. the sing. as v.l.; JosAs 12:3; Just., A I, 60, 6). The earth (before the Deluge) formed ἐξ ὕδατος καὶ διʼ ὕδατος 2 Pt 3:5 (cp. HDiels, Doxographi Graeci 1879 p. 276, 12 [Θαλῆς] ἐξ ὕδατός φησι πάντα εἶναι καὶ εἰς ὕδωρ πάντα ἀναλύεσθαι; JChaine, Cosmogonie aquatique et conflagration finale d’après 2 Pt: RB 46, ’37, 207–16. S. also Artem. 1, 77 p. 70, 6 al. ἐξ ὕδατος ἢ διʼ ὕδατος). Of the waters of the Deluge 1 Pt 3:20; 2 Pt 3:6. σίφων ὕδατος a water-pump Hm 11:18. κεράμιον ὕδατος a water jar (s. κεράμιον) Mk 14:13; Lk 22:10. ποτήριον ὕδατος (Just., A I, 65, 3; 66, 4; PGen 51, 9) a cup of water Mk 9:41. Water for washing Mt 27:24; Lk 7:44; J 13:5. Cp. Hs 9, 10, 3. Water fr. a well J 4:7 (TestAbr A 3 p. 79f [Stone p. 7f] ὕδωρ ἀπὸ τοῦ φρέατος); fr. a spring Js 3:12 (γλυκὺ ὕδωρ; s. γλυκύς, also Demetr.: 722 Fgm. 4 Jac.; ParJer 9:18; Just., D. 86, 1; Herm. Wr. 13, 17); of a stream Rv 16:12 (cp. ParJer 6:25 τοῦ ὕδατος τοῦ Ἰορδάνου; Just., D. 88, 3).—τὸ ὕδωρ specif.=the river Mt 3:16; Mk 1:10; =the pool J 5:3f, 7; =the lake Lk 8:24, pl. Mt 8:32; 14:28f; =the spring, etc. pl. Rv 8:11ab; cp. πηγαὶ (τῶν) ὑδάτων vs. 10; 14:7; 16:4 (Just. A I, 64, 1); =the mountain torrent pl. Hv 1, 1, 3; cp. GJs 18:3. Of waters gener., or not more exactly defined Mt 17:15. ὕδωρ τι Ac 8:36a. Cp. vs. 38f. Pl. Mk 9:22. ὕδατα πολλά (Ps 28:3) J 3:23; Rv 17:1; ὕδατα ταῦτα GJs 3:2. φωνὴ ὑδάτων πολλῶν the sound of many waters (Ps 92:4) Rv 1:15; 14:2; 19:6 (Mussies 82). χεόμενα ὕδατα water that is poured out Ox 840, 32f. γεμίσαι ὕδωρ draw water GJs 11:1 (cp. TestAbr A 3 p. 79, 34 [Stone p. 6]).—After Num 15:16ff of trial by water ὕδωρ τῆς ἐλέγξεως GJs 16:1. W. bread as that which is necessary to maintain life Hs 5, 3, 7 (cp. Am 8:11; JosAs 10:2; 4 [6] Esdr [POxy 1010]); AcPl Ha 4, 4. In contrast to wine J 2:9 (ApcEsdr 4:27). W. blood J 19:34 (s. αἷμα 1a). Christ came διʼ ὕδατος καὶ αἵματος and ἐν τῷ ὕδατι καὶ ἐν τῷ αἵματι 1J 5:6abc; cp. vs. 8 (s. διά A 1a, ἐν 5aβ and ἔρχομαι 1bα). Gener. of John’s baptism by water (alone), opp. πνεῦμα Mt 3:11; Mk 1:8; Lk 3:16; J 1:33 (26, 31); Ac 1:5; 11:16. Of Christian baptism, the new birth ἐξ ὕδατος καὶ πνεύματος J 3:5 (on the originality of the rdg. ὕδατος καί s. Hdb.³ ad loc.; Bultmann 98, 2; cp. Just., D. 138, 3 διʼ ὕδατος καὶ πίστεως καὶ ξύλου), 8 v.l. Cp. Ac 10:47 AcPl Ha 3, 32. καθαρίσας τῷ λουτρῷ τοῦ ὕδατος ἐν ῥήματι Eph 5:26. λελουσμένοι τὸ σῶμα ὕδατι καθαρῷ Hb 10:22 (καθαρός 1). Even the OT points to the water of baptism B 11:1ab, 8ab, which Christ has consecrated by his own baptism IEph 18:2. The symbolic language of Hermas makes many allusions to the baptismal water: διʼ ὕδατος ἀναβαίνειν Hs 9, 16, 2. εἰς ὕδωρ καταβαίνειν m 4, 3, 1; Hs 9, 16, 6. The tower (=God’s assembly, church) is built ἐπὶ ὑδάτων Hv 3, 2, 4; 3, 3, 5ab, ὅτι ἡ ζωὴ ὑμῶν διὰ ὕδατος ἐσώθη καὶ σωθήσεται 3, 3, 5c. Acc. to D 7:1, when at all poss., ὕδωρ ζῶν running water (ζάω 4) is to be used in baptizing. Cp. 7:2.

② transcendent life-giving medium, water, fig. ext. of 1, with the transition marked by J 4:10f, where (τὸ) ὕδωρ (τὸ) ζῶν (cp. JosAs 14:12; 1QH 8:7 and CD 6:4 [s. also 3:16]) is partly spring water and partly a symbol of the benefits conferred by Jesus (OCullmann, ThZ 4, ’48, 367f.—For the imagery cp. Sir 15:3.—Cp. 1QH 8:4). Cp. 7:38; 4:14abc (cp. Sir 24:21); IRo 7:2 (cp. OdeSol 11:6; Anacreontea 12, 7 p. 9 Preisendanz λάλον ὕδωρ). ὕδωρ (τῆς) ζωῆς water of life (s. Hdb. exc. on J 4:14; REisler, Orphisch-dionys. Mysteriengedanken in der christl. Antike: Vorträge der Bibl. Warburg II/2, 1925, 139ff; Herm. Wr. 1, 29 ἐτράφησαν ἐκ τοῦ ἀμβροσίου ὕδατος) Rv 21:6 (the award granted a conquering hero; cp. Pind., I. 6, 74); 22:1, 17. βεβάμμεθα ἐν ὕδασι ζωῆς Ox 840, 43f. ζωῆς πηγαὶ ὑδάτων springs of living water Rv 7:17.—SEitrem, Opferritus u. Voropfer der Griechen u. Römer 1915, 78ff, Beiträge z. griech. Religionsgesch. III 1920, 1ff; MNinck, Die Bed. des Wassers im Kult u. Leben der Alten 1921; AKing, Holy Water: A Short Account of the Use of Water for Ceremonial and Purificatory Purposes in Pagan, Jewish, and Christian Times 1926; TCanaan, Water and the ‘Water of Life’ in Palest. Superstition: JPOS 9, 1929, 57–69.—B. 35; BHHW III 2138–41 (lit.).—DELG. M-M. TW.

πηγή, ῆς, ἡ (Hom.+; loanw. in rabb.)

① a source of someth. that gushes out or flows, spring, fountain, flow (on distinction fr. κρηνή ‘artificially constructed fountain’ s. L-S-J-M Suppl.; RWycherly, ClR 51, ’37, 2f; Renehan ’75, 164f)

ⓐ ordinarily of water spring, fountain Js 3:11, 12 v.l.; Hs 9, 1, 8; 9, 25, 1. (αἱ) πηγαὶ (τῶν) ὑδάτων ( the) springs of water (cp. Lev 11:36; Num 33:9; 3 Km 18:5; Jdth 7:7; Ps 17:16; Jos., Ant. 2, 294; Just., A I, 64, 1) Rv 8:10; 14:7; 16:4. ἀέναοι πηγαί everflowing springs 1 Cl 20:10 (ἀέναος 1). As typical of sinners πηγαὶ ἄνυδροι (s. ἄνυδρος) 2 Pt 2:17. Of a specific source, well (called φρέαρ in J 4:11f; cp. Mod. Gk. πηγάδι=‘well’.—WHutton, ET 57, ’45/46, 27) π. τοῦ Ἰακώβ, at the foot of Mt Gerizim (on the location of Jacob’s well s. Dalman, Orte³ 226ff) J 4:6a; cp. vs. 6b (Paus. 8, 23, 4 ὀλίγον ὑπὲρ τ. πόλιν π. ἐστιν καὶ ἐπὶ τῇ π. …).

ⓑ of blood ἡ πηγὴ τοῦ αἵματος αὐτῆς (Lev 12:7) Mk 5:29 (Alex. Aphr., An. p. 40, 2 Bruns πηγὴ τ. αἵματος. Cp. πηγὴ δακρύων: Soph., Ant. 803; Chariton 1, 3, 6; 2, 3, 6; 6, 7, 10; Achilles Tat. 7, 4, 6).

ⓒ Quite symbolic (s. Hdb. exc. on J 4:14 and cp. Dio Chrys. 15 [32], 15 τὸ σῷζον [ὕδωρ] ἄνωθέν ποθεν ἐκ δαιμονίου τινὸς πηγῆς κάτεισι. In schol. on Pla. 611c ἀθάνατος πηγή is a spring whose water bestows immortality) is its usage in some NT pass.: ἡ πηγὴ τοῦ ὕδατος τῆς ζωῆς the spring of the water of life Rv 21:6; in the pl. ζωῆς πηγαὶ ὑδάτων 7:17; πηγὴ ὕδατος ἁλλομένου εἰς ζωὴν αἰώνιον a spring of water welling up for eternal life J 4:14 (Essenes apply this figure to the Torah, e.g. CD 6:4; also s. Hdb. ad loc.).

② the place of origin or the cause of a full abundance of someth., fountainhead, fig. ext. of 1 (Pind. et al; Epict. 3, 1, 18 Apollo as πηγὴ τῆς ἀληθείας [πηγὴ ἀληθ. also in Himerius, Or. 48=Or. 14, 35; Maximus Tyr. 12, 6c; 13, 9c; Philo, Mos. 1, 84); πηγὴ ζωῆς source of life (Pr 10:11; 13:14; 14:27) of God B 11:2 (Jer 2:13 and 17:13; cp. Ps 35:10); cp. B 1:3 Funk; s. πλούσιος 2.—B. 44. DELG. M-M. TW.

मधु a. (

-धु or

-ध्वी f.) [मन्यत इति मधु, मन्-उ नस्य धः Uṇ.1.18) Sweet, pleasant, agreeable, delightful; आपापयति गोविन्दपादपद्मासवं मधु Bhāg.1.18.12; त्वया सह निवत्स्यामि वनेषु मधुगन्धिषु U.2.18. -f. N. of a plant (जीवा, जीवन्ती). -n.

-(धु) 1 Honey; एतास्ता मधुनो धाराश्च्योतन्ति सविषास्त्वयि U.3.34; मधु तिष्ठति जिह्वाग्रे हृदये तु हलाहलम्.

-2 The juice or nectar of flowers; मधु द्विरेफः कुसुमैकपात्रे पपौ प्रियां स्वामनुवर्तमानः Ku.3.36; देहि मुखकमलमधुपानम् Gīt.1.

-3 A sweet intoxicating drink, wine, spirituous liquor; विनयन्ते स्म तद्योधा मधुभिर्विजयश्रमम् R.4.65; Ṛs. 1.3.

-4 Water.

-5 Sugar.

-6 Sweetness.

-7 Any- thing sweet.

-8 Ved. Soma juice.

-9 Milk or anything produced from milk (Ved.).

-1 A bee-hive; केचित्- पीत्वापविध्यन्ति मधूनि मधुपिङ्गलाः Rām.5.62.1.

-11 Bee-wax; Ms.1.88. -m.

(धुः) 1 The spring or vernal season; मधुरया मधुबोधितमाधवी Śi.6.2; क्व नु ते हृदयंगमः सखा कुसुमायोजितकार्मुको मधुः Ku.4.24,25;3.1,3.

-2 The month of Chaitra; भास्करस्य मधुमाधवाविव R.11.7; मासे मधौ मधुरकोकिलभृङ्गनादै रामा हरन्ति हृदयं प्रसभं नराणाम् Ṛs.6. 25.

-3 N. of a demon killed by Viṣṇu.

-4 N. of another demon, father of Rāvaṇa and killed by Śatru- ghna.

-5 The Aśoka tree.

-6 N. of king Kārtavīrya.

-Comp. -अष्ठीला a lump of honey, clotted honey.

-आधारः wax.

-आपात a. having honey at the first taste; शक्तः परजने दाता स्वजने दुःखजीविनि । मध्वापातो विषास्वादः स धर्मप्रतिरूपकः ॥ Ms.11.9.

-आम्रः a kind of mango tree.

-आलु n.,

-आलुकम् sweet potato.

-आवासः the mango tree.

-आसवः sweet spirituous liquor (made from honey).

-आसवनिकः distiller, vintner.

-आस्वाद a. having the taste of honey.

-आहुतिः f. a sacrificial offering of sweet things.

-उच्छिष्टम्, -उत्थभ्, -उत्थितभ् 1 bees'-wax; शस्त्रासवमधूच्छिष्टं मधु लाक्षा च बर्हिषः Y.3.37; मधूच्छिष्टेन केचिच्च जध्नुरन्योन्यमुत्कटाः Rām.5.62.11.

-2 the casting of an image in wax; Mānasāra; the name of 68th chapter.

-उत्सवः the spring or vernal festival celebrated on the full-moon day of Chaitra.

-उदकम् 'honey-water', water mixed with honey, hydromel.

-उद्यानम् a spring-garden.

-उपघ्नम् 'the abode of Madhu', an epithet of Mathurā; स च प्राप मधूपघ्नं कुम्भीन- स्याश्च कुक्षिजः R.15.15.

-उषितम् wax.

-कण्ठः the cuckoo.

-करः 1 a large black bee; कुटजे खलु तेनेहा तेने हा मधुकरेण कथम् Bv.1.1; R.9.3; Me.37,49; सर्वतः सारमादत्ते यथा मधुकरो बुधः Bhāg.

-2 a lover, libertine.

-3 sweet lime. (

-री) a female bee; न च मधुकरीवदन्नरस- भोजिन्यो देवता इति प्रमाणमस्ति ŚB. on MS.9.1.9. ˚गणः, ˚श्रेणिः f. a swarm of bees.

-कर्कटी 1 sweet lime, a kind of citron.

-2 A kind of date.

-काननम्, -वनम् the forest of the demon Madhu.

-कारः, -कारिन् m. a bee.

-कुक्कुटिका, -कुक्कुटी a sort of citron tree.

-कुल्या a stream of honey.

-कृत् m. a bee; Bhāg. 11.7.33.

-केशटः a bee.

-कोशः, -षः 1 a bee-hive.

-2 a honey comb.

-क्रमः 1 a bee-hive.

-2 a honey comb. (pl.) drinking-bout, carousals.

-क्षीरः, -क्षीरकः a Kharjūra tree.

-गन्धः the Bakula tree.

-गन्धि, -गन्धिक a. scented with honey, sweet-smelling; वनेषु मधुगन्धिषु U.2.18.

-गायनः the cuckoo.

-गुञ्जनः the drum-stick plant (Mar. शेवगा).

-ग्रहः a libation of honey.

-घोषः the cuckoo.

-च्युत्, -त, -श्च्युत् a.

1 dropping or distilling honey; ददतु तरवः पुष्पैरर्घ्यं फलैश्च मधुश्च्युतः U.3.24.

-2 mellifluous, overflowing with sweets.

-जम् bees'-wax.

-जा 1 sugar-candy.

-2 the earth.

-जम्बीरः a kind of citron.

-जित्, -द्विष्, -निषूदन, -निहन्तृ m.,

-मथः, -मथनः, -रिपुः, -शत्रुः, -सूदनः epithets or Viṣṇu; इति मधुरिपुणा सखी नियुक्ता Gīt.5; R.9.48; Śi.15.1.

-जीवनः N. of plant (Mar. बेहडा).

-तृणः, -णम् sugar cane.

-त्रयम् the three sweet things; i. e. sugar, honey, and clarified butter.

-दीपः the god of love.

-दूतः the mango tree.

-दोहः the extracting of sweetness or honey.

-द्रः 1 a bee.

-2 a libertine.

-द्रवः N. of a tree having red blossoms (Mar. तांबडा शेवगा).

-द्रुमः the mango tree.

-धातुः a kind of yellow pyrites (सुवर्णमाक्षिक).

-धारा a stream of honey.

-धूलिः f. molasses.

-धेनुः honey offered to Brāhmaṇas in the form of a cow.

-नाडी a cell in a honey-comb.

-नारिकेलः, -नारिकेरकः a kind of cocoanut (Mar. मोहाचा नारळ).

-नेतृ m. bee.

-पः a bee or a drunkard; राजप्रियाः कैरविण्यो रमन्ते मधुपैः सह Bv.1.126;1.63 (where both meanings are intended).

-पटलम् a bee-hive.

-पतिः an epithet of Kṛiṣṇa.

-पर्कः 1 'a mixture of honey', a respectful offering made to a guest or to the bridegroom on his arrival at the door of the father of the bride; (its usual ingredients are five:- दधि सर्पिर्जलं क्षौद्रं सिता चैतैश्च पञ्चभिः । प्रोच्यते मधुपर्कः); समांसो मधुपर्कः U.4; असिस्वदद्यन्मधु- पर्कमर्पितं स तद् व्यधात्तर्कमुदर्कदर्शिनाम् । यदैष पास्यन्मधु भीमजाधरं मिषेण पुण्याहविधिं तदा कृतम् N.16.13; Ms.3.119 et seq.

-2 the ceremony of receiving a guest.

-पर्किकः one who praises at the time of मधुपर्क; पठन्ति पाणिस्वनिका मागधा मधुपर्किकाः Mb.7.82.2. (com. मधुपर्किकाः माङ्गल्योपस्थापकाः).

-पर्क्य a. worthy of madhuparka q. v.

-पर्णिका, -पर्णी the Indigo plant.

-पाका sweet melon.

-पात्रम् a wine-jug.

-पानम् drinking wine; धनलवमधुपानभ्रान्त- सर्वेन्द्रियाणाम् Bh.

-पायिन् m. a bee.

-पालः a honey- keeper.

-पुरम्, -री an epithet of Mathurā; संप्रत्युज्झित- वासनं मधुपुरीमध्ये हरिः सेव्यते Bv.4.44.

-पुष्पः 1 the Aśoka tree.

-2 the Bakula tree.

-3 the Dantī tree.

-4 the Śirīṣa tree.

-प्रणयः addiction to wine.

-प्रमेहः diabetes, sacharine urine.

-प्राशनम् one of the sixteen purificatory Samskāras (which consists in putting a little honey into the mouth of a new-born male child).

-प्रियः an epithet of Balarāma.

-फलः a kind of cocoa- nut.

-फलिका a kind of date.

-बहुला the Mādhavī creeper.

-बा(वी)जः a pomegranate tree.

-बी(वी)- जपूरः a kind of citron.

-भूमिकः an epithet of Yogin in the second order.

-मक्षः, -क्षा, -मक्षिका a bee.

-मज्जनः the tree called आखोट.

-मत्त a.

1 drunk with wine.

-2 excited by the spring.

-मदः the intoxication of liquor.

-मन्थः a kind of drink mixed with honey.

-मल्लिः, -ल्ली f. the Mālatī creeper.

-मस्तकम् a kind of sweetmeat made of honey, flour, oil, and ghee; मधुतैलघृतैर्मध्ये वेष्टिताः समिताश्च याः । मधुमस्तकमुद्दिष्टम्..... Śabda-chandrikā.

-माक्षिकम् = मधुधातु q. v.

-माधवम्, -वौ the two spring months (चैत्र and वैशाख).

-माधवी 1 a kind of intoxicating drink; क्रीडन्त्यो$भिरताः सर्वाः पिबन्त्यो मधुमाधवीम् Mb.1.81.3.

-2 any springflower.

-माध्वीकम् a kind of intoxicating liquor.

-मारकः a bee.

-मांसम् honey and meat; Ms.11.158.

-मूलम् N. of an edible root (like Mar. रताळें, सुरण).

-मेहः मधुप्रमेह q. v.

-यष्टिः, -ष्टी f.

1 sugar-cane.

-2 liquorice.

-यष्टिका, -वल्ली liquorice.

-रस a. sweet-flavoured, sweet.

-(सः) 1 the wine-palm.

-2 sugarcane.

-3 sweetness.

-(सा) 1 a bunch of grapes.

-2 vine.

-लग्नः N. of a tree.

-लिह्, -लेह्, -लेहिन् m.

-लोलुपः a bee; so मधुनोलेहः; मधुलिहां मधुदानविशारदा R.9.29; मधुलेहिगीतौ Bk.; मधुलिह इव मधुबिन्दून् विरलानपि भजत गुणलेशान् Ve.1.5.

-वनम् 1 N. of the forest inhabited by the demon Madhu where Śatrughna founded Mathurā.

-2 N. of the forest of Sugrīva. (

-नः) the cuckoo.

-वल्ली 1 liquorice.

-2 a kind of grape

-3 Sweet citron.

-वाच् the Indian cuckoo.

-वाराः (m. pl.) drinking often and often, tippling, carousing; जज्ञिरे बहुमताः प्रमदानामोष्ठयावक- नुदा मधुवाराः Ki.9.59; क्षालितं नु शमितं नु वधूनां द्रावितं नु हृदयं मधुवारैः Śi.1.14; sometimes in the sing, also; see: अङ्गनास्यचषकैर्मधुवारः Ki.9.57.

-विद्या N. of a mystical doctrine.

-व्रतः a bee; मार्मिकः को मरन्दानामन्तरेण मधुव्रतम् Bv.1.117; तस्मिन्नद्य मधुव्रते विधिवशान्माध्वीकमाकाङ्क्षति 46; मालां मधुव्रतवरूथगिरोपघुष्टाम् Bhāg.

-शर्करा honey-sugar.

-शाखः a kind of tree.

-शिला = मधुधातु q. v.

-शिष्टम्, -शेषम् wax.

-श्री beauty of spring.

-सखः, -सहायः, -सारथिः, -सुहृद् m. the god of love.

-संधानम् brandy.

-सिक्थकः a kind of poison.

-सूदनः 1 a bee; गायन् कलं क्रीडति पद्मिनीषु मधूनि पीत्वा मधुसूदनो$सौ Chanḍ. M.

-2 an epithet of Viṣṇu; भक्तानां कर्मणां चैव सूदनान्मधुसूदनः

-3 N. of a writer of works like अद्वैतसिद्धि.

-स्थानम् a bee-hive.

-स्रवः a. dropping honey or sweetness.

-(वा) 1 liquo- rice.

-2 N. of the third day in the bright half of Śrāvaṇa.

-स्वरः the cuckoo.

-हन् m.

1 a destroyer or collector of honey; सर्वथा संहतैरेव दुर्बलैर्बलवानपि । अमित्रः शक्यते हन्तुं मधुहा भ्रमरैरिव ॥ Mb.3.33.7; Bhāg.11.7.34.

-2 a kind of bird of prey.

-3 a sooth-sayer.

-4 an epithet of Viṣṇu.

iz.

1. spring; \iturri bero hot spring ; \iturri emankor abundant spring ; \iturri gorri mineral spring | spring containing water with a high iron content ; bere buruari begira zegoen \iturri batean he was looking at himself in the spring; \iturriko ura oso ona da the water from the spring is very good

b. ( herriko plazakoa, e.a.) fountain; plaza nagusiak erdi-erdian du \iturria there is a fountain right in the middle of the square

c. (esa.) ezin agortuzko \iturri batetik bezala zerion hitza she was talking nineteen to the dozen

d. [ izenen aurrean ] ( h.g. itur-) \iturri-urak spring waters

2. (irud.)

a. source, origin; argi-\iturri bat da it's a source of light; poz- eta negar-\iturria the source of joy and sorrow; dirua gaitz guztien \iturria da money is the root of all evil; bortizkeria, saldukeria, eta sexua beti izango dira literatura-\iturri bikaina violence, treachery, and sex will always be a good source for literature

b. (Kaz.) source; \iturri onetik dakit hori I have it on good authority | I have it from reliable sources

marée [maʀe]

   a. [de mer] tide

• à marée montante when the tide comes in

• à marée descendante when the tide goes out

• à marée haute at high tide

• à marée basse at low tide

• grande marée spring tide

• marée noire oil slick

• ça sent la marée it smells of the sea

   b. [de produits, touristes] flood

• marée humaine great flood of people

   c. la marée ( = poissons de mer) the fresh catch

* * *

1) Géographie tide

2) fig

3) ( produits pêchés) fresh fish

•

- marée noire

- marée verte

••

* * *

1) (phénomène, moment) tide

2) (= poissons) fresh sea-fish

* * *

marée nf

1 Géog tide; la marée monte/descend the tide is coming in/is going out; une marée d'équinoxe an equinoctial tide; les grandes marées the spring tides; à marée haute/basse at high/low tide, at high/low water; la marée montante/descendante the rising/ebbing tide; à marée montante/descendante when the tide comes in/goes out; partir avec la marée [bateau, pêcheur] to leave with the tide; [temps, nuage] to disappear as the tide goes out; l'odeur de la marée the smell of the sea; sentir la marée [air] to smell of the sea;

2 fig (de personnes, sentiments, d'émotions) flood; ( de voitures) mass, flood; une marée humaine a human tide; une marée d'antisémitisme a tide of antisemitism;

3 ( produits pêchés) fresh fish.

marée noire oil slick; marée verte aquatic weed pollution.

contre vents et marées ( à l'avenir) come hell or high water; ( dans le passé) against all odds.

[mare] nom féminin

1. GÉOGRAPHIE tide

2. [poissons] (fresh) fish, (fresh) seafood

कामः [कम्-घञ्]

1 Wish, desire; संतानकामाय R.2.65, 3.67; oft. used with the inf. form; गन्तुकामः desirous to go; संगात्संजायते कामः Bg.2.62; Ms.2.94.

-2 Object of desire; सर्वान् कामान् समश्नुते Ms.2.5; Bṛi. Up.1.3.28. Kaṭh. Up.1.25.

-3 Affection, love.

-4 Love or desire of sensual enjoyments, considered as one of the ends of life (पुरुषार्थ); cf. अर्थ and अर्थकाम.

-5 Desire of carnal gratification, lust; Ms.2.214; न मय्यावेशितधियां कामः कामाय कल्पते Bhāg.1.22.26.

-6 The god of love.

-7 N. of Pradyumna.

-8 N. of Balarāma.

-9 A kind of mango tree.

-1 The Supreme Being.

-मा Desire, wish; उवाच च महासर्पं कामया ब्रूहि पन्नग Mb.3.179.2.

-मम् 1 Object of desire.

-2 Semen virile. [Kāma is the Cupid of the Hindu mythology- the son of Kṛiṣṇa and Rukmiṇī. His wife is Rati. When the gods wanted a commander for their forces in their war with Tāraka, they sought the aid of Kāma in drawing the mind of Śiva towards Pārvatī, whose issue alone could vanquish the demon. Kāma undertook the mission; but Śiva, being offended at the disturbance of his penance, burnt him down with the fire of his third eye. Subsequently he was allowed by Śiva to be born again in the form of Pradyumna at the request of Rati. His intimate friend is Vasanta or the spring; and his son is Aniruddha. He is armed with a bow and arrows--the bow-string being a line of bees, and arrows of flowers of five different plants].

-Comp. -अग्निः 1 a fire of love, violent or ardent love.

-2 violent desire, fire of passion. ˚संदीपनम्

1 inflaming fire of love.

-2 an aphrodisiac.

-अङ्कुशः 1 a finger- nail (which plays an important part in erotic acts).

-2 the male organ of generation.

-अङ्गः the mango tree.

-अधिकारः the influence of love or desire.

-अधिष्ठित a. overcome by love.

-अनलः see कामाग्नि.

-अन्ध a. blinded by love or passion. (

-न्धः) the (Indian) cuckoo.

-अन्धा musk.

-अन्निन् a. getting food at will.

-अभिकाम a. libidinous, lustful.

-अरण्यम् a pleasant grove.

-अरिः 1 an epithet of Śiva; ते समेत्य तु कामारिं त्रिपुरारिं त्रिलोचनम् Rām.7.6.3.

-2 a mineral subs- tance.

-अर्थिन् a. amorous, lustful, lascivious.

-अवतारः N. of Pradyumna.

-अवशा(सा)यिता f.

1 Self-control.

-2 a kind of Yogic power.

-अवसायः suppression of passion or desire, stoicism.

-अशनम् 1 eating at will.

-2 unrestrained enjoyment.

-आख्या, -अक्षी N. of Durgā.

-आतुर a. love-sick, affected by love; कामातुराणां न भयं न लज्जा Subhāṣ.

-आत्मजः an epithet of Aniruddha, son of Pradyumna.

-आत्मन् a. lustful, libidinous, en- amoured. कामात्मानः स्वर्गफलाः Bg.2.43. Mb.1.119.3-4. Ms.7.27.

-आयुधम् 1 arrow of the god of love.

-2 membrum virile. (

-धः) the mango-tree.

-आयुस् m.

1 a vulture.

-2 Garuḍa.

-आर्त a. love-stricken, affected by love; कामार्ता हि प्रकृतिकृपणाश्चेतनाचेतनेषु Me.5.

-आश्रमः the hermitage of the god of love; Rām.1.

-आसक्त a. overcome with love or desire, impassioned, lustful.

-इष्टः the mango tree.

-ईप्सु a. striving to obtain a desired object, यत्तु कामेप्सुना कर्म Bg.18.24.

-ईशः, -ईश्वरः 1 an epithet of Kubera;

-2 the Supreme soul.

-3 a person possessing all wealth. अपास्य कामा- न्कामेशो वसेत्तत्राविचारयन् Mb.12.287.56.

-उदकम् 1 voluntary libation of water.

-2 a voluntary libation of water to deceased friends exclusive of those who are entitled to it by law; कामोदकं सखिप्रत्तास्वस्रीयश्वशुर- र्त्विजाम् Y.3.4.

- उपहत a. affected by or overcome with passion.

-कला N. of Rati, the wife of Kāma.

-काम, -कामिन् a. following the dictates of love or passion, गतागतं कामकामा लभन्ते Bg.9.21; स शान्तिमाप्नोति न कामकामी Bg.2.7.

-कार a. acting at will, indulging one's desires.

(-रः) 1 voluntary action, spontaneous deed; Rām.2.11.18; Ms.11.41,45.

-2 desire, influ- ence of desire; अयुक्तः कामकारेण फले सक्तो निबध्यते Bg.5. 12.

-कूटः 1 the paramour of a harlot.

-2 harlotry.

-कृत् a.

1 acting at will, acting as one likes.

-2 granting or fulfilling a desire. (-m.) the Supreme soul.

-केलि a. lustful.

(-लिः) 1 a paramour.

-2 amorous sport.

-3 copulation.

-क्रीडा 1 dalliance of love, amorous sport.

-2 copulation.

-ग a. going of one's own accord, able to act or move as one likes.

(-गा) 1 an unchaste or libidinous woman; Y.3.6.

-2 a female Kokila.

-गति a. able to go to any desired place; अध्यास्त कामगति सावरजो विमानम् R.13.76.

-गुणः 1 the quality of passion, affection.

-2 satiety, perfect enjoyment.

-3 an object of sense.

-चर, -चार a. moving freely or unrestrained, wandering at will; सर्वेषु लोकेष्वकामचारो भवति Bṛi. Up.7.25.2; नारदः कामचरः Ku.1.5.

-चार a. unchecked, unrestrained.

(-रः) 1 unrestrained motion.

-2 independent or wilful action, wantonness; न कामचारो मयि शङ्कनीयः R.14.62.

-3 one's will or pleasure, free will; अव्यपवृक्ते कामचारः Mbh. on Śiva Sūtra 3.4. कामचारानुज्ञा Sk.; Ms.2.22.

-4 sensuality.

-5 selfishness.

-चारिन् a.

1 moving unrestrained; Me.65.

-2 libidinous, lustful.

-3 self-willed. (-m.)

1 Garuḍa.

-2 a sparrow.

-ज a. produced by passion or desire; Ms.7.46,47,5.

-जः anger; रथो वेदी कामजो युद्धमग्निः Mb.12.24.27.

-जननी betel-pepper (नागवेली).

-जानः, -निः See कामतालः.

-जित् a. conquering love or passion; R.9.33. (-m.)

1 an epithet of Skanda.

-2 of Śiva.

-तन्त्रम् N. of a work.

-तालः the (Indian) cuckoo.

-द a. fulfilling a desire, granting a request or desire. (

-दः) an epithet of Skanda and of Śiva.

-दहनम् a particular festival on the day of full moon in the month फाल्गुन (Mar. होलिकोत्सव).

-दा = कामधेनु q. v.

-दर्शन a. looking lovely.

-दानम् 1 a gift to one's satisfaction.

-2 a kind of ceremony among prosti- tutes; B. P.

-दुघ a. 'milking one's desires', granting every desired object; प्रीता कामदुघा हि सा R.1.81,2.63; Māl.3.11.

-दुघा, -दुह् f. a fabulous cow yielding all desires; आयुधानामहं वज्रं धेनूनामस्मि कामधुक् Bg.1.28. स्वर्गे लोके कामधुग्भवति Mbh. on P.VI.1.84.

-दूती the female cuckoo.

-दृश् f. a woman; विमोचितुं कामदृशां विहारक्रीडामृगो यन्निगडो विसर्गः Bhāg.7.6.17.

-देव 1 the god of love.

-2 N. of Śiva.

-3 N. of Viṣṇu.

-दोहिन् a. granting desires.

-धर्मः amorous behaviour.

-धेनुः f. the cow of plenty, a heavenly cow yielding all desires; कलतिवलती कामधेनू; or कलिवली कामधेनू Vyāka- raṇa Subhāṣita.

-ध्वंसिन् m. an epithet of Śiva.

-पति, -पत्नी f. Rati, wife of Cupid.

-पालः N. of Balarāma; also of Śiva.

-प्रद a. granting desires.

(-दः) 1 a kind of coitus.

-2 the Supreme Being.

-प्रवेदनम् expressing one's desire, wish or hope; कच्चित् कामप्रवेदने Ak.

-प्रश्नः an unrestrained or free question; स ह कामप्रश्नमेव वव्रे Bṛi. Up.4.3.1.

-फलः a species of the mango tree.

-ला the plantain tree.

-भाज् a. partaking of sensual enjoyment; कामानां त्वा कामभाजं करोमि Kaṭh.1.24.

-भोगाः (pl.) sensual grati- fications; प्रसक्ताः कामभोगेषु Bg.16.16.

-महः a festival of the god of love celebrated on the full-moon day in the month of Chaitra.

-मालिन् m. N. of Gaṇeśa.

-मूढ, -मोहित a. influenced or infatuated by love; यत्क्रौञ्च- मिथुनादेकमवधीः काममोहितम् U.2.5.

-रसः 1 seminal dis- charge.

-2 the spling

-रसिक a. lustful, libidinous; क्षणमपि युवा कामरसिकः Bh.3.112.

-रूप a.

1 taking any form at will; जानामि त्वां प्रकृतिपुरुषं कामरूपं मघोनः Me.6.

-2 beautiful, pleasing. (

-पाः) (pl.) a district lying in the east of Bengal (the west- ern portion of Assam); तमीशः कामरूपाणाम् R.4.83,84.

-रूपिन् a.

1 taking any form at will; कामान्नी कामरूपी Tait. Up.3.1.5.

-2 beautiful. -m.

1 a pole-cat.

-2 a boar.

-3 a Vidyādhara.

-रेखा, -लेखा a harlot, courtezan.

-लता membrum virile.

-लोल a. overcome with passion, love-stricken.

-वरः a gift chosen at will.

-वल्लभः 1 the spring.

-2 the moon.

-3 the mango tree. (

-भा) moonlight.

-वश a. influenced by love. (

-शः) subjection to love.

-वश्य n. subject to love.

-वाद a. saying anything at will.

-विहन्तृ a. disappointing desires.

-वीर्य a. 'showing heroism at will,' an epithet of Garuḍa.

-वृक्षम् a. paracitical plant.

-वृत्त a. addicted to sensual gratification, licentious, dissipated; विशीलः कामवृत्तो वा गुणैर्वा परिवर्जितः । उपचर्यः स्त्रिया साध्व्या सततं देववत्पतिः ॥ Ms. 5.154.

-वृत्ति a. acting according to will, self-willed, independent; न कामवृत्तिर्वचनीयमीक्षते Ku.5.82. (

-त्तिः) f.

1 free and unrestrained action.

-2 freedom of will.

-वृद्धिः f. increase of passion.

-वृन्तम् the trumpet flower.

- शर 1 a love shaft.

-2 the mango tree.

-शास्त्रम् the science of love, erotic science.

-संयोगः attainment of desired objects.

-सखः 1 the spring.

-2 the month of Chaitra.

-3 the mango tree.

-सू a. fulfilling any desire. किमत्र चित्रं यदि कामसूर्भूः R.5.33. -m. N. of Vāsudeva. -f. N. of Rukmiṇi;

-सूत्रम् 1 N. of an erotic work by Vātsyāyana.

-2 'thread of love', love-incident' औद्धत्यमायोजितकामसूत्रम् Māl.1.4.

-हैतुक a. produced by mere desire without any real cause; Bg.16.8.

* * *

Gen.pl. wód

1. (np. do picia) water; woda bieżąca running water; woda brzozowa birch extract-based hair tonic; woda deszczowa rainwater; woda gazowana sparkling water; woda gruntowa ground water; woda kolońska eau de Cologne; woda królewska chem. aqua regia; woda kwiatowa flower-scented eau de Cologne; woda letejska Lethean water; woda mineralna mineral water; woda ognista (= mocny alkohol, zwł. whisky) firewater; woda pitna drinking water; woda przegotowana boiled water; woda przemysłowa industrial water; woda różana rosewater; woda sodowa soda water; woda toaletowa toilet water; woda źródlana spring water; miękka/średnia/twarda woda soft/medium/hard water; słodka woda fresh water; słona woda salt water; czystej wody (diament, łgarz itd.) first water; warzywa/karp z wody kulin. boiled vegetables/carp; wody płodowe anat. waters, amniotic fluid; ciężka woda chem. heavy water; woda destylowana chem. distilled water; woda utleniona hydrogen peroxide, peroxide; woda święcona rel. holy water; woda wapienna limewater; woda z kranu tap water; ujęcie wody l. wodne water intake; nastawić wodę (na herbatę itp.) put the kettle on; burza w szklance wody storm in a teacup; jak ogień i woda przen. like oil and water; (ci dwoje) są jak ogień i woda never the twain shall meet; krew nie woda ( o kimś) he/she is so hot-blooded; o chlebie i wodzie on bread and water; spływać jak woda po gęsi l. kaczce be like water off a duck's back; wylać komuś kubeł zimnej wody na głowę throw l. pour cold water on sb; szło jak woda it was selling like hot cakes; nie bądź w gorącej wodzie kąpany don't be such a hothead; podobni do siebie jak dwie krople wody as like as two peas (in a pod); utopiłby mnie w łyżce wody he'd like nothing better than see me perish; nabrać wody w usta keep one's mouth shut, not breathe a word ( about sth); chyba mu woda sodowa uderzyła do głowy looks like he has a swollen head, looks like the brains he had went to his head; bać się czegoś jak diabeł święconej wody be afraid of sth like a vampire fears an olive stake; lać wodę pot. waffle; póty dzban wodę nosi, póki się ucho nie urwie the pitcher goes often to the well but it is broken at last.

2. ( akwen) water; odpoczywać nad wodą rest by the water; wody stojące stagnant waters; wody terytorialne territorial waters; wody otwarte open waters; woda gruntowa geol. ground water; woda podskórna subsurface water; woda powierzchniowa surface water; cicha woda przen. ( o osobie) the silent type; cicha woda brzegi rwie still waters run deep; zniknąć jak kamień w wodę vanish into thin air; to wszystko palcem po wodzie pisane it's all like a castle in the air; to woda na jego młyn it's grist to his mill; dziesiąta woda po kisielu a (very) distant relative; czuć się jak ryba w wodzie be in one's element; puszczać się na szerokie wody go big (time); dużo wody upłynie, zanim... it will be a long time before..., a lot of water will run under the bridge before...

3. med. water, serous liquid.

1 salt-lick, a spot where salt is fed to cattle.

2 salt lick.

* * *

► nombre masculino

1 salt lick

* * *

= salt lick.

Nota: Terreno saturado de sales minerales frecuentado por los animales.

Ex. Since the spring water was saline, it is unlikely that the site was used as a source of drinking water for the animals, but it may have served as a salt lick site.

* * *

= salt lick.

Nota: Terreno saturado de sales minerales frecuentado por los animales.

* * *

salegar nm

salt lick

SUBJECT AREA: Horology

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[br]

[br]

Little is known about Tompion's early life except that he was born into a family of blacksmiths. When he was admitted into the Clockmakers' Company in 1671 he was described as a "Great Clockmaker", which meant a maker of turret clocks, and as these clocks were made of wrought iron they would have required blacksmithing skills. Despite this background, he also rapidly established his reputation as a watchmaker. In 1674 he moved to premises in Water Lane at the sign of "The Dial and Three Crowns", where his business prospered and he remained for the rest of his life. Assisted by journeymen and up to eleven apprentices at any one time, the output from his workshop was prodigious, amounting to over 5,000 watches and 600 clocks. In his lifetime he was famous for his watches, as these figures suggest, but although they are of high quality they do not differ markedly from those produced by other London watchmakers of that period. He is now known more for the limited number of elaborate clocks that he produced, such as the equation clock and the spring-driven clock of a year's duration, which he made for William III. Around 1711 he took into partnership his nephew by marriage, George Graham, who carried on the business after his death.

Although Tompion does not seem to have been particularly innovative, he lived at a time when great advances were being made in horology, which his consummate skill as a craftsman enabled him to exploit. In this he was greatly assisted by his association with Robert Hooke, for whom Tompion constructed a watch with a balance spring in 1675; at that time Hooke was trying to establish his priority over Huygens for this invention. Although this particular watch was not successful, it made Tompion aware of the potential of the balance spring and he became the first person in England to apply Huygens's spiral spring to the balance of a watch. Although Thuret had constructed such a watch somewhat earlier in France, the superior quality of Tompion's wheel work, assisted by Hooke's wheel-cutting engine, enabled him to dominate the market. The anchor escapement (which reduced the amplitude of the pendulum's swing) was first applied to clocks around this time and produced further improvements in accuracy which Tompion and other makers were able to utilize. However, the anchor escapement, like the verge escapement, produced recoil (the clock was momentarily driven in reverse). Tompion was involved in attempts to overcome this defect with the introduction of the dead-beat escapement for clocks and the horizontal escapement for watches. Neither was successful, but they were both perfected later by George Graham.

[br]

I) (-ar, -ar), f.

1) bath;

2) hot spring (fyrir sunnan ána eru laugar).

II) from ljúga.

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f., old dat. laugu; with the article laugunni, Rd. 276, Thom. 484, but lauginni, Sturl. ii. 98, Fms. vii. 150; pl. laugar: [cp. Swed. lör; Dan. löver in lör-dag, löver-dag, = Icel. laugar-dagr, q. v.]:—a bath; hón varðveitti barn drottningar óborit meðan hón var í laugu, Landn. 110; taka laugar, Fs. 72; þar vóru laugar görvar, en er konungr var í lauginni var tjaldat yfir kerit, Fms. vii. 150; prestr er skyldr at vígja þrjár laugar um dag (of baptismal water), N. G. L. i. 347; laug skal göra hveim er liðinn er hendr þvá ok höfuð (of washing the dead), Sdm. 34 (Bugge); síðan vóru borð tekin, en Flosi tók laugar ok lið hans, Nj. 176, (hand-laug, mund-laug, q. v.): the bath in which a new-born infant is washed is called laug.

II. in Icel. a hot spring, which was used for bathing; en Föstudags-aptan fóru biskupar báðir til laugar í Laugar-ás eptir náttverð, Bs. i. 78; eitt hvert kveld er þeir fóru til laugar, … en laugin ( the spring) var ekki á almanna-veg, 621; þat var eitt kveld er Snorri sat í laugu, at talat var um höfðingja, … Sturla Bárðarson hafði haldit vörð yfir lauginni ok leiddi hann Snorra heim, Sturl. ii. 98; fyrir sunnan ána eru laugar ( hot springs) ok þar hjá jarðholur stórar, Eg. 747; Kjartan fór opt til Sælingsdals-laugar (the well in S.), jafnan bar svá til at Guðrún var at laugu, Ld. 160; Gestr kemr til Sælingsdals-laugar, ok dvelsk þar um hríð, Guðrún kom til laugar ok fagnar vel Gesti frænda sínum, 124.

III. in Icel. the hot springs were public bathing-places, and the word is freq. in local names, Laugar, f. pl., Laugar-á, Laugar-áss, Lauga-ból, Laugar-brekka, Laugar-dalr, Laugar-dælar, Laugar-nes, Lauga-land, Lauga-vatn, Lauga-fell, Laugar-vellir, Lauga-sker, Laugar-hús, Landn.; see the Sagas, the map of Icel., Eggert Itin.; and as the latter part of a compd, Valla-laug, Sælingsdals-laug, Reykja-laug, etc., all indicating places with hot springs used for baths in olden times.

IV. Saturday was the day appointed for cleansing and bathing, and hence the day took its name, laugar-aptan, m. ‘bath-eve,’ Saturday evening, Ísl. ii. 274: laugar-dagr, m. ‘bath-day,’ Saturday, Grág., K. Þ. K., N. G. L., the Sagas passim: laugardags-morginn, m., -kveld, n. Saturday morning, evening, passim: laugar-kveld, n. = laugaraptan, Ísl. ii. 247: laugar-morginn, m. ‘bath-morning,’ Saturday morning, Ísl. ii. 232: laugar-nátt, f. ‘bath-night,’ Saturday night, (the night between Saturday and Sunday, as shewn by Sturl. ii. 170); ok er lofat at eta hvítan mat miðviku-nátt ok laugarnátt í Hvíta-dögum, K. Á. 188, K. Þ. K. This washing and fasting had a religious character, as is shewn bv laugavatn, Sól. 50; as also by the verse in Skíða R.,—aldrei frá ek at aumum þrjót | mun íllra meina batna | fyrr en lofar at leggja af biót | ok laugarnætr at vatna, 202: and that it came from the remote heathen age, when the year was still counted by pentads and not by heptads, we may infer from the freq. use of laug as the latter part of the compd in proper names, esp. of women, Ás-laug, Guð-laug, Þór-laug, Odd-laug, Sigr-laug, Snæ-laug, Vé-laug (= the Holy well, the Holy bath); and of men, Her-laugr, Guð-laugr, see Landn. and the Sagas.

V. COMPDS: laugarhús, laugarker, laugarpíning, laugavatn.

Σιλωάμ, ὁ indecl. (שִׁלֹחַ; masc.: Is 8:6 τὸ ὕδωρ τοῦ Σιλωάμ; 2 Esdr 13:15 S κολυμβήθρα τοῦ Σιλωάμ; ViIs 2:4 [p. 69, 5 and 10 Sch.]; but fem.: Jos., Bell. 5, 505 τὴν Σιλωάμ.—Elsewh. Jos. usu. has declinable forms: τοῦ Σιλωᾶ Bell. 2, 340; 6, 363; ἡ Σιλωά, ᾶς, ᾷ, άν 5, 140; 145 [τὴν Σιλωὰν πηγήν]; 252, 410; 6, 401.—B-D-F §56, 4; s. Rob. 95) Siloam, name of a water supply system in Jerusalem, through which the water of the spring Gihon became available for the Fortress of David. ἡ κολυμβήθρα τοῦ Σ. the pool of Siloam was prob. the basin into which the water was conducted J 9:7; cp. vs. 11.—Vincent/Abel, Jérus.: (s. Ἱεροσόλυμα 1b) II chap. 34 §2; GDalman, Jerus. u. s. Gelände 1930, 386 (index); CKopp, The Holy Places of the Gospels tr. RWalls, ’63, 314–20; RBrown, AB ad loc.—ὁ πύργος ἐν τῷ Σ. the tower near the pool of Siloam Lk 13:4.—BHHW III 1715. M-M.

crue² [kʀy]

( = montée des eaux) rise in the water level ; ( = inondation) flood

• en crue in spate

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adjectif féminin cru 1.

nom féminin ( montée des eaux) rise in water level; ( inondation) flood

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[cours d'eau] rising

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crue ⇒ cru A, D.

[kry] nom féminin

1. [élévation de niveau] rise in the water level

2. [inondation]

   Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.

   A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.

   Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140

   The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."

   In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.

   The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.

   Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385

   Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in

   Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.

   The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.

   Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580

   The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.

   The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.

   What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.

   By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.

   Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.

   The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.

   By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.

   In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.

   Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640

   Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.

   Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.

   On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.

   Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822

   Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.

   Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.

   In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the

   Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.

   Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.

   Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.

   Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910

   During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.

   Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.

   Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.

   Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.

   Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.

   As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.

   First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26

   Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.

   The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.

   Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.

   The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74

   During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."

   Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.

   For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),

   and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.

   The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.

   With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.

   During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.

   The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.

   At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.

   The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.

   Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76

   Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.

   Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.

   In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.

   In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.

   In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.

   The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until

   UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.

   Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000

   After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.

   From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.

   Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.

   Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.

   In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.

   In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.

   Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.

    Contemporary Portugal

   Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.

   The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.

   Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.

   Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).

   All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.

   The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.

   After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.

   Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.

   Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.

   From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.

   Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.

   In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.

   An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.